The History of Texas: Mexican Independence Movement
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Life in San Antonio in the Early 1800's)
Don Francisco Miranda
DON
FRANCISCO MIRANDA was the first advocate and martyr of
freedom in Spanish America. His grandfather was once governor of the
province of Caraccas, where he was born. In 1783, he visited the United
States, and drank deep of the spirit of the American Revolution. He
traveled over a good part of Europe on foot. In 1789, he was at St.
Petersburg; and, though strongly pressed by the empress Catherine II. to
enter her service, he felt an irresistible impulse that led him to join
in the wars of France. Here he became attached to Petion, who had him
sent on a mission to England, and gave him the appointment of
major-general. After engaging in many battles in Belgium and Holland, he
barely escaped falling into the hands of Robespierre, then of the
directory, and again of Bonaparte. He devoted his time and great talents
to the destruction of the Spanish power in America. It is not necessary
further to trace the eventful history of his life, than to refer to the
fact that he started an expedition in 1806 from New York to Central
America, and then another in 1810, both of which were unsuccessful.
Miranda had the countenance of Pitt in his expeditions; but it is
equally true that the United States, although sympathizing deeply with
their oppressed brethren under the Spanish yoke, afforded no aid and
took no part in Miranda's movements. The positive declarations of
Presidents Adams and
Jefferson on this point should be satisfactory.
Aaron Burr and the Revolutionary Movement in Mexico
From
the close of the American Revolution there were many choice spirits in
Mexico, who were impatient for an occasion to achieve their
independence. But the great mass of the people had been too greatly
oppressed, and were too ignorant, at once to grasp and comprehend the
great idea of civil liberty. They had a dim view of it only, which made
them restless. The prospect of a war between the United States and
Spain, from the year 1801 to 1806, excited the sympathy between the
people of the United States and the Mexican creoles. From this grew up a
correspondence, an understanding, between them, that at the outset of
such a war the adventurers of the American Union were to invade Mexico,
and join the creoles in sustaining their independence. At the head of
this party in the United States was Aaron Burr. It was Burr's intention,
in the event of such a war—then deemed almost certain—to establish an
independent government in Mexico; and there is little doubt that, in
this enterprise, he had the promised cooperation of General Wilkinson.
To prepare for this state of things, and be nearer the scene of action,
Burr had contracted for a large quantity of land on the Washita, and
doubtless intended to make it his headquarters. In the event of there
being no war, it is probable that Burr himself had but a confused idea
of the course he would pursue. Perhaps, in the language of Commodore
Truxton (who was a witness on Burr's trial), he would be on the
frontier, and ready to move whenever a war took place. Burr may have
intended to invade Mexico at all events—in fact, it is likely that he
did—but his arrest, and the treaty between Wilkinson and Herrera, put an
end to all his plans.*
*
Burr's Trial; Annals of Congress (ninth Congress, second
session), p. 1008. There is something mysterious in the conduct of
General Wilkinson in the hasty conclusion of the agreement with
Herrera, his sudden departure for
New Orleans, and his immediate action in regard to Burr and his
partisans; but, above all, in sending Captain Walter Burling to
Mexico. Captain Pike, in his journal
of the 20th of April, 1807 (he was then at Chihuahua), says: "We
this day learned that an American officer had gone on to the city of
Mexico. This was an enigma to us inexplicable, as we conceived that
the jealousy of the Spanish government would have prevented any
foreign officer from penetrating the country; and that the United
States could send an authorized agent to the viceroyalty for, when
the Spanish government had, at the seat of our government, a
charge des affaires, served but to darken the conjectures. The
person alluded to was Mr. Burling, a citizen of Mississippi
territory, whose mission is now well known to the government." It
appears, from Davis's Memoirs of Burr (vol. ii., p. 400),
that the object of Captain Burling was to procure from the Spanish
government a large sum for Wilkinson's services in arresting the
designs of Burr. Burling must have obtained a passport from the
governor of Texas; and this matter must have been arranged on the
banks of the Sabine, at the time they agreed upon the neutral
ground.
Burr was descending the Mississippi, and
on the 17th of January, 1807, surrendered himself at Bayou Pierre, with
nine boats and a hundred men, " a majority of whom were boys, or young
men just from school." Thus ended his enterprise, but not its effects.
Burr was brought to trial; the whole
Union was aroused, and information eagerly sought. The public mind was
directed to Burr, to his supposed plans, and to the country he proposed
to invade. The adventurers of America were studying the geography of
Mexico and of Texas. The creoles of Mexico, groaning under an
oppression—the more galling because they saw their neighbors of the
United States free and happy—had also commenced the study of geography
and the art of free government.
The victories of Bonaparte had placed
continental Europe at his feet. So early as 1805 he had formed the
design of placing one of his family on the throne of Spain; and, in
acquiring that country, he expected also to obtain possession of her
American colonies, then numbering at least fifteen millions of
inhabitants. It was for this reason, and with this view, that he took
part with Spain in her controversy with the United States touching the
boundaries of
Louisiana. As he had formed the design to acquire the
Spanish-American colonies, he wished them as large as possible.
Executing with celerity and without scruple his plans of aggrandizement,
he invaded the Spanish territory. A domestic quarrel in the royal family
favored his designs. Charles IV. was a weak and helpless monarch; he was
ruled by his wife, and she by her favorite, Manuel Godoy, known as the
"Prince of Peace." Between the two latter there was said to be an
intimacy not creditable. Spain saw it, and Ferdinand, the king's son,
saw it; but the king did not; hence a quarrel between Godoy and
Ferdinand. The king and Queen took part with Godoy. In this unhappy
state of their affairs, Bonaparte was called in to decide between them.
He did so by sending both parties into a more honorable banishment than
they deserved, and took possession of their kingdom. This was ratified
by the treaty of Bayonne, on the 5th of May, 1808; and shortly
thereafter, Joseph Bonaparte ascended the Spanish throne. The
inhabitants of Spain did not long submit to this summary transfer of
their government. Early in June following, the war commenced between the
French and the Spanish patriots. The latter were directed by juntas, or
revolutionary committees, acting with little concert or system, but with
desperate valor. While this contest was raging in Spain, the news was
received in Mexico of the overthrow of the house of Bourbon, and the
usurpation of the Bonapartes. This was immediately followed by
emissaries from Joseph Bonaparte and the different Spanish juntas, each
asking and claiming the allegiance and support of the Mexican people.
Here was a fine opportunity for an escape from European bondage. They
were released from their oath of fealty to Charles IV.; and the
parent-country was so involved in war at home, that, with union and
concert, the Mexicans could easily have achieved their independence.
In the last days of July the news of the
rising of the Spanish patriots against King Joseph Bonaparte reached the
city of Mexico. The native Spaniards and official authorities in Mexico,
with the exception of the viceroy Iturigaray, were willing to acquiesce
in the order of the council of the Indies, transferring the American
colonies to Bonaparte; but the viceroy and the natives of Mexico opposed
it. Among the revolutionary juntas in Spain, that of Seville was the
most prominent. The emissaries of this junta demanded that Mexico should
adhere to the Bourbon family. These were followed by the agents of other
juntas, each claiming the control of the colony.
In this distracted condition of their
affairs, the people of Mexico proposed to the viceroy what had never
been proposed before in that country—the call of a convention, or
governing junta of delegates from the people. The viceroy was about to
comply with a request so reasonable, when the Spaniards, fearful of a
popular assembly, and of the loss of the offices—for they held them
all—formed a conspiracy against him; and, at midnight, on the 15th of
September, 1808, seized his person, and committed him to the prison of
the Inquisition. All this was approved by the junta of Seville, who
appointed the then archbishop of Mexico as viceroy. As he was a person
of great mildness, and much venerated by the Mexican creoles,
dissatisfaction was allayed.
But the Mexican patriots were again
aroused by the removal of the archbishop, and the intrusting of the
government, for the time being, to the "Court of Audience." This court
was the exponent of genuine Spanish despotism, and justly abhorred by
all liberal men in Mexico. In the meantime, the victories of Napoleon in
Spain had overturned and dispersed the junta of Seville, thus offering
to the people of Mexico another honorable and bloodless opportunity of
being free. If they did not accept it, they thereby proved themselves
unworthy of a destiny so exalted.
The junta dispersed at Seville again
reappeared at Cadiz, and sent out Don Jose Venegas as viceroy. He
exhibited his dislike for the native Mexicans by conferring all his
favors upon the European Spaniards. He also stationed his most reliable
forces at the disaffected points, thus showing his disposition to rely
upon the sword for success in keeping Mexico in subjection to the junta
from which he derived his power.
By this time the torch of revolution had
been lighted over the whole of Spanish America. England had at first
encouraged and taken part in the revolt of the different provinces; but
when the war broke out between France and the Spanish patriots, Great
Britain formed an alliance with the latter; while Napoleon, finding he
could not secure the colonies for himself, took part in favor of their
independence.
Don Miguel Hidalgo and the Mexican Revolution
Before the arrival of the viceroy Venegas,
Don Miguel Hidalgo, a curate of Dolores in the province of Guanaxuato, a
great friend to the native Mexicans, and a man of good sense and gentle
manners, had raised the standard of revolt. The
Indians,
longing to avenge the atrocities of
Cortez and the oppressions of so
many years, flew to his aid. He was joined by several companies of the
royal troops, and marched to the city of Guanaxuato, his army increasing
daily. He took the place with little opposition, and, what was most
important to him, he replenished his military chest with five millions
of dollars taken from the treasury of the city.
The town of Queretaro, equal in
importance to that of Guanaxuato, was in favor of the revolution; and,
to prevent it from falling into the hands of Hidalgo, the viceroy,
toward the last of September, 1810, sent General Cadena, with three
thousand troops, to defend it. He also organized several corps of
guerillas; but without effect. The revolt became general; and Hidalgo,
after providing himself with munitions, and putting in some sort of
order the immense host of creoles, Indians, and mestizoes, that followed
his standard, set out on his march for the capital.
The Spanish junta, in October, 1809, had
decreed terms of conciliation to be submitted to their revolted
colonies. These were—that the colonies should have an equal
representation in the national tortes; that their American and Asiatic
colonies should enjoy a free trade; that the King's monopolies should be
suppressed; that the working of the quicksilver-mines in America should
be free; that native Americans should be equally eligible with European
Spaniards to all offices in church or state; that, to prevent disputes
as to the meaning of this last proposition, there should be an equal
number of each of the two classes; and, to fill them, there should be a
consultive junta in each province to make nominations. These
propositions were presented to the Mexican people on the 23d of
September, 1810. But they came too late. Hidalgo was at the head of an
enthusiastic army; he had sufficient supplies, had thrown aside the gown
and breviary for the sword, and wished a solution of the questions at
issue at some point nearer the capital. On his march he overthrew all
opposing forces; and it appeared that he would have no difficulty in
making himself master of the city. Venegas had only two thousand troops
for its defense. Cadena was supposed to be at Queretaro, and Calleja at
San Luis Potosi—both too distant to afford relief. At this crisis,
Venegas applied the spiritual weapon, which, among a superstitious
people, never fails to have its effect. Hidalgo and his adherents were
solemnly excommunicated. The revolted chieftain, who had too much sense
to be overawed by such fancies, replied. But not so with his ignorant
followers. The prestige of victory had departed. He marched to the
suburb of the city, but the next day set out on his retreat.
Hidalgo Executed
In the meantime, the forces of Cadena and
Calleja, having made forced marches to relieve the capital, united, and
attacked and defeated Hidalgo, first at Aculco, then at Guanaxuato, and
again on the 11th of January, 1811, not far from Guadalaxara. The latter
retreated to Zacatecas, and then to San Luis Potosi. He was pursued by
Calleja, and continued his retreat, intending to pass Saltillo, and make
his way into Louisiana, there to remain until his affairs should be more
propitious. But General Salcedo, commandant of the northeastern
provinces, had sent out a force to cut him off in that direction; while
Arredondo, in command of a Spanish force, was close upon his rear. In
this critical position, Hidalgo was betrayed by Don Y. Elisondo, one of
his own officers, at Acatita de Bajan, on the 11th of March, 1811. Many
of his followers were executed on the spot; others were put to death
wherever found. Hidalgo was taken to Chihuahua, and put to death on the
27th of July. Among his adherents, Colonel Delgado was apprehended at
San Antonio, executed, and his head stuck on a pole at the crossing of
the river between the Alamo and the town. Another, Bernardo Gutierres,
effected his escape, and took refuge at Natchitoches. The names of some
of Hidalgo's followers in the last days of his career are here
mentioned, because of the important parts played by them in subsequent
transactions in Texas.
The territory lying between the Arroyo
Honda and the river Sabine, which had been left as neutral ground by the
agreement between Wilkinson and Herrera, had become the rallying-point
and refuge of a large number of desperate men. Many had removed there
with their families, and established permanent residences. They made war
upon all enemies, and, like the buccaneers, lived upon the fruits of
their trespasses. They were more particularly partial to the Mexican
traders, who brought horses and specie from the interior to exchange for
merchandise at Natchitoches. These they preferred as victims, because
they could rob them with the greater impunity. They had a regular
organization, their headquarters, outposts, and whatever else of
contrivance they deemed necessary to carry out their objects. The
Spanish authorities had done what they could to suppress them. Twice had
the military forces of the United States entered the territory, and
drove them off, burning their houses and fixtures. They were not to be
thus driven away.
The Freebooters
On one occasion, a number of Mexican
traders, loaded with silver, had reached Salitre prairie, on the west
bank of the Sabine, on their way to Natchitoches. A small Spanish force
was stationed at this point, for the protection of trade, as well as to
prevent adventurers from passing over to Mexico. They sent to Major
Wolstoncraft, then commanding at Natchitoches, for an escort to guard
the traders across the neutral ground, The request was granted, and a
small guard was dispatched under the command of Lieutenant Augustus W.
Magee. The traders were brought safely as far as La Nan, a small creek
west of the Adaes. At this point the creek made a bend in the form of a
horseshoe, the convex side being toward Natchitoches. The freebooters of
the neutral ground, thirteen in number, had stationed themselves
opposite the bend, on both sides of the road, having the creek between
them and the road.
When the traders had all passed into the
bend, and just as Lieutenant Magee and his guard, who were in front,
were crossing the creek, the robbers advanced and fired. Magee, seeing
himself overpowered, fled with his guard to Natchitoches; and the poor
traders were relieved of all their valuables, and sent back to Salitre
prairie. For the time, the money taken was concealed by the leaders of
the gang under the bank of the creek, and they repaired to their several
homes to await what would follow. The amount taken was so large, that it
could not pass unnoticed. The next day, Magee, having been reinforced,
returned to make search for the robbers. He met two of them going into
Natchitoches, and, recognizing them, took them into custody. As legal
proceedings at this period were not much regarded, they were tied to
trees and whipped, with a view to make them disclose their associates.
Failing in this, a live coal of fire was passed along their naked backs;
but still no disclosure could be obtained. They were then taken to
Natchitoches, and delivered into the hands of the civil authority for
trial.
Early Texas Independence Movement
During the time of these occurrences,
Colonel Bernardo Gutierres arrived at Natchitoches. He formed an
acquaintance with Magee, and they had together many long conferences.
Magee was young, bold and romantic in his disposition, and drank with
eagerness the marvelous tales of Bernardo. As republican revolutionists
of Mexico had in view a federative system like that of the United
States, Magee had conceived the idea of conquering Texas to the Rio
Grande, and building up a republican state, with a view of ultimately
adding it to the American or the Mexican Union as circumstances should
admit. He informed himself fully of the geography and resources of
Texas, of the distracted condition of Mexico and Spain, and made his
arrangements with consummate skill and secrecy. It would be necessary to
have the aid of the Mexican population of Texas; and this would require
the use of the name of Bernardo as commander-in-chief. It would also be
necessary to have the aid, of the freebooters of the neutral ground;
this Magee engaged himself to secure. It would likewise be requisite to
have as auxiliaries the Texas Indians; these could be obtained through
John McFarland and Samuel Davenport, both Indian agents, and decided
republicans. And finally, it would be necessary to have supplies;
Colonel Davenport had the wealth and disposition to serve as
quartermaster and contractor to the army.
The arrangements all being completed,
proposals were published, in the name of Don Bernardo Gutierres, for
raising the "Republican Army of the North." The publication promised to
each volunteer forty dollars per month, and a league of land to be
assigned him within the boundaries of the new republic. Magee saw the
leaders of the freebooters, and notified them to repair in June, 1812,
to the rendezvous at the Saline on the east side of the Sabine river. He
himself visited New Orleans, where he obtained a few supplies, and
engaged some young men of respectable character to join him. Having
arranged these matters, he returned to Natchitoches.
To carry out the plan agreed on, Bernardo
repaired to the rendezvous on the 14th of June. His force there amounted
to one hundred and fifty-eight men. They were of the neutral ground, and
could not be conquered. They were ready and able to do anything that the
same number of men could do. It was understood that Magee should remain
yet longer at Natchitoches, and forward supplies and recruits; and, in
the meantime, the force at the Saline was to cross the Sabine at
Gaines's ferry, drive the enemy before them, and halt at the Spanish
Bluff on the Trinity for further orders.
Bernardo and his men set out about the
middle of June, crossed the river, attacked the Spaniards at Salitre
prairie, and, after a running fight of about an hour, drove them away.
In this fight the Americans lost two killed and three wounded; the loss
of the enemy was not ascertained. The Spaniards retreated and fortified
the hill overlooking the town of Nacogdoches on the cast. The Americans
being in close pursuit, the breastwork was hastily constructed, and
composed in part of bales of wool intended for the Louisiana market.
When the Americans came in sight of the breastwork, they charged upon
it, and the enemy fled. The former did not even get a fire at them; and
when they took possession of the works, the Spaniards were flying
through the town, and without any considerable halt continued their
retreat to the Spanish Bluff. The Americans sent off the wool taken on
the hill to Natchitoches to purchase supplies, and continued the march.
Their numbers were continually increased by reinforcements forwarded by
Magee. The contractor, Colonel Davenport, was also indefatigable in
procuring and dispatching supplies. The fort at the Bluff, occupied by
about four hundred Spaniards, was evacuated on the approach of the
Americans. The latter took possession, and found also there a large
supply of provisions and ammunition. Here they waited for
reinforcements. Magee, on the 22d of June, 1812, resigned his
commission, preparatory to leaving the United States; and, after making
his arrangements, and collecting his friends and the recruits just
arrived, he set out for the headquarters of the invading army. He left
behind him Captain James Gaines at the crossing of the Sabine, to
forward recruits and maintain the communication with the advanced
forces.
The Americans remained at the Bluff till
about the middle of October. The Spaniards in the meantime were not
idle. His excellency Don Manuel de Salcedo, governor of Texas, with the
aid of the late governor, Colonel Cordero, and Simon Herrera, governor
of New Leon, were collecting such of the royalists as could be spared
from the service in the interior of Mexico, and fortifying La Bahia and
San Antonio. Don N. Arredondo, for his services in the capture of
Hidalgo, had succeeded Don Nimisio de Salcedo as commandant of the
north-eastern provinces. But the civil war in Mexico had not terminated
with the death of Hidalgo. Morelos, another priest, had raised the
standard of independence in the southern provinces of the viceroyalty;
and Victoria was conducting the war with some success in the vicinity of
Jalapa. The republicans, though driven from place to place, still kept
up an organization, and a junta, whose orders were implicitly obeyed.
The infamous Calleja had become the general butcher of Mexico; blood and
desolation followed his march. Morelos, after a great and bloody battle,
fought at Tixtla on the 19th of August, 1811, had laid siege to the
strongly-fortified town of Acapulco with a part of his army, but with
the main body took possession of Quautla Amilpas, about seventy-five
miles from the capital, where he was besieged by Calleja.
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